Interdisciplinary Bioethics Reflection on Genetic Editing with CRISPR-Cas in Germinal Line in the Context of Transhumanism
Abstract
Received: 30/06/2018Accepted: 21/11/2018The purpose of this article is to explain some of the implications of using the CRISPR-Cas technique in the germinal line for non-therapeutic purposes, in the context of transhumanism. After giving a brief explanation about the nature of this technique, the state of the question is offered in relation to the current international regulations. Afterwards, the consequences of the development of this technique within the framework of the transhumanism project are observed and it offers legal, political and anthropological reflections on these consequences.References
Alkire, S. (2010). “Human Development: Definitions, Critiques, and Related Concepts”. OPHI Working Papers 36, University of Oxford. Recuperado de: http:// ophi.org.uk/human-development-definitions-critiques-and-related-concepts/ (Consulta hecha el 17.04.18).
Arendt, H. (1994). Eichmann in Jerusalem. A report on the Banality of Evil. NewYork, NY: Penguin Books.
Aristóteles. (1985). Ética Nicomaquea, trad. J. Pallí Bonet. Madrid: Gredos.
Ballesteros, J. (2000). Postmodernidad: decadencia o resistencia. Madrid: Tecnos.
Baltimore, D., Berg, P., Botchan, M., Carroll, D., Charo, R. A., Church, G., & Ya- mamoto, K. R. (2015). “Biotechnology. A Prudent Path Forward for Genomic Engineering and Germline Gene Modification”. Science, 348 (6230), 36-38. doi:10.1126/science.aab1028
Barnett, S. A. (2017). “Regulating Human Germline Modification in Light of CRISPR”, 51 U. Rich. L. Rev. 553. Recuperado de: http://scholarship.richmond.edu/ law-student-publications (Consulta hecha el 27.06.18).
Baylis, F., & Robert, J. S. (2004). “The inevitability of genetic enhancement technologies”, Bioethics, Vol. 18, n. 1.
Bess, M. (2010). “Enhanced humans versus «normal people»: elusive definitions”. J. Med Philos, 35(6), 641-55.
Bostrom, N. (2002). “Existential Risks: Analyzing Human Extinction Scenarios and Related Hazards”. Journal of Evolution and Technology, Vol. 9, n. 1.
Bostrom, N. (2005a). “A History of Transhumanist Thought”. Journal of Evolution and Technology, Vol. 14, n. 1.
Bostrom, N. (2005b). “Transhumanist values”, Review of Contemporary Philosophy, Vol. 4, p. 3-14.
Bostrom N., & Roache R. (2008). “Ethical Issues in Human Enhacement”. Journal of New Waves in Apllied Ethics. In Ryberg, J., Petersen T., & Wolf C. (Eds). Pelgrave Macmillan, pp. 120-152.
Bostock, D. (2000). Aristotle’s ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Broadie, S. (1991). Ethics with Aristotle. New York : Oxford University.
Camporesi S., Cavaliere G. (2016). “Emerging ethical perspectives in the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats genome-editing debate”, Per- sonalized Medicine 13(6). doi: 10.2217/pme-2016-0047
Diéguez, A. (2017). Transhumanismo. La búsqueda tecnológica del mejoramiento humano. Barcelona: Herder.
Doudna, J. (2015). “Perspective: Embryo Editing Needs Scrutiny”. Nature, 528 (7580), S6. doi:10.1038/528S6a
FDA. (1998). Guidance for human somatic cell therapy and gene therapy. Rockville, MD: FDA. Gen Therapy Net. La terapia génica. Recuperado de: http://www.ge- netherapynet.com/gene-therapy-news/456-disruptive-crispr-gene-therapy- is-150-times-cheaper-than-zinc-fingers-and-crispr-is-faster-and-more-preci- se.html. (Consulta hecha el 27.06.18).
Ferry, L. (2017). La revolución transhumanista. Cómo la tecnomedicina y la uberización del mundo van a transformar nuestras vidas. Madrid: Alianza.
Finnis, J. (1980). Natural Law and Natural Rights. Oxford University Press, Clarendon Law Series.
Gómez Lobo, A. (1999). “La fundamentación de la ética aristotélica” en Anuario Filosófico n. 32, pp. 17-37.
Gómez-Tatay, L., Hernández-Andreu., J. M., & Aznar, J. (2015). “Genome Editing. Medical and Ethical Lively Debate”, Observatorio de Bioética. Recuperado de: http://www.bioethicsobservatory.org/2018/05/genome-editing-medical- and-ethical-lively-debate/10363 (Consulta hecha el 22.06.18).
Hardie, W.F.R. (1980). Aristotle’s Ethical Theory. Oxford University Press.
Harris, J. (2010). Enhancing Evolution: The Ethical Case for Making Better People. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Hatada, I., & Horii, T. (2016). “Genome Editing: A Breakthrough in Life Science and Medicine”. Endocr J, 63(2), 105-110. doi:10.1507/endocrj.EJ15-0716
Hauskeller, M. (2014). Better Humans?: Understanding the Enhancement Project. New York: Routledge.
Hofmann, B. (2017). “Limits to Human Enhancement: Nature, Disease, Therapy or Betterment?”. BMC Medical Ethics, 18:56, 1-11. doi: 10.1186/s12910-0215-8
Hryhorowicz, M., Lipiński, D., Zeyland, J., & Słomski, R. (2017). “CRISPR/Cas9 Immune System as a Tool for Genome Engineering”. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz), 65(3), 233-240. doi:10.1007/s00005-016-0427-5
Jinek, M., Chylinski, K., Fonfara, I., Hauer, M., Doudna, J. A., & Charpentier, E. (2012). “A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity”. Science, 337 (6096), 816-821. doi:10.1126/science.1225829
Komor, A. C., Badran, A. H., & Liu, D. R. (2017). “CRISPR-Based Technologies for the Manipulation of Eukaryotic Genomes”. Cell, 168(1-2), 20-36. doi:10.1016/j. cell.2016.10.044
Kraut, R. (1991). Aristotle on the human good. Princeton: Princeton University. Lanphier, E., Urnov, F., Haecker, S. E.,
Werner, M. & Smolenski, J. (2015). ”Don’t Edit the Human Germ Line. Nature. 519, 410-411. doi:10.1038/519410a
Liang, P., Xu, Y., Zhang, X., Ding, C., Huang, R., Zhang, Z., Huang, J. (2015). ”CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Gene Editing in Human Tripronuclear Zygotes”. Protein Cell, 6(5). 363-372. doi:10.1007/s13238-015-0153-5
MacIntyre. A. (1966). A short history of ethics. New York: MacMillan.
MacIntyre. A. (1981). After virtue : a study in moral theory. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.
Mei, Y., Wang, Y., Chen, H., Sun, Z. S., & Ju, X. D. (2016). “Recent Progress in CRISPR/Cas9 Technology”. J Genet Genomics, 43(2), 63-75. doi:10.1016/j. jgg.2016.01.001
Men, K., Duan, X., He, Z., Yang, Y., Yao, S., & Wei, Y. (2017). “CRISPR/Cas9-mediated correction of human genetic disease”. Sci China Life Sci, 60(5), 447-457. doi:10.1007/s11427-017-9032-4.
More, M. (1990). “Transhumanism: Toward a Futurist Philosophy”, Extropy, 6, pp. 6-11.
National Institutes of Health. (1976). Recombinant DNA research guidelines. Fed Regist,41: 27902-43.
Nussbaum, M. C. (2006). Frontiers of justice: Disability, nationality, species membership. Harvard University Press.
Nussbaum, M. C. (1999). Sex and social justice. Oxford University Press.
Parlamento Europeo (1989). “Resolución del Parlamento Europeo, de 16 de marzo de 1989”, Sobre los problemas éticos y jurídicos de la manipulación genética, Doc A 2-327/88. Diario Oficial de las Comunidades Europeas; C 96/165.
Platón. (1986). República, trad. de C. Eggers Lan. Madrid: Gredos.
Pollack, R. (2015). Eugenics lurk in the shadow of CRISPR. Science, 348(6237): 871.
doi: 10.1126/science.348.6237.871-a
Redman, M., King, A., Watson, C., & King, D. (2016). “ What is CRISPR/Cas9?” Arch DisChild Educ Pract Ed, 101(4), 213-215. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2016-310459.
Ross, A. (2013). “Metaphysics and Ethics in Aristotle: About Being and Duty”, en Gabriela Rossi (ed.), Nature and the Best Life Exploring the Natural Bases of Practical Normativity in Ancient Philosophy. Hildesheim- Zúrich-Nueva York, Olms, pp.127-153.
Savulescu, J. (2001). “Procreative Beneficence: Why We Should Select the Best Chil- dren”. Bioethics 15 (5-6), 413-26.
Schramme, T. (2013). “«I Hope that I Get Old Before I Die»: Ageing and the Concept of Disease”. Theor Med Bioeth; 34(3): 171-87.
Seligman, M. (2002). Authentic happiness. New York: Free Press.
Sen, A. (1979). “Equality of What?” The Tannner Lecture on Human Values, Stanford University, Recuperado de: www.ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Sen-1979_ Equality-of-What.pdf (Consulta hecha el 27.06.18).
Singh, V., Braddick, D., & Dhar, P. K. (2017). “Exploring the Potential of Geno- me Editing CRISPR-Cas9 Technology”. Gene, 599, 1-18. doi:10.1016/j. gene.2016.11.008
SSA. (2014). Reglamento de la Ley General de Salud en Materia de Investigación para la Salud. Cap. IV. De la investigación en Mujeres en Edad Fértil, Embarazadas, durante el Trabajo de Parto, Puerperio, Lactancia y Recién Nacidos; de la uti- lización de Embriones, Óbitos y Fetos y de la Fertilización Asistida. Art. 55. Diario Oficial de la Federación, 3 de febrero 1983. Recuperado de: http:// www.salud.gob.mx/unidades/cdi/nom/compi/rlgsmis.html (Consulta hecha el 13.04.18).
Tang, L., Zeng, Y., Du, H., Gong, M., Peng, J., Zhang, B., Lei, M., Zhao, F., Wang, W., Li, X., & Liu, J. (2017). “CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Gene Editing in Hu- man Zygotes Using Cas9 Protein”. Mol Genet Genomics, 292(3), 525-533. doi:10.1007/s00438-017-1299-z
Taylor, A. J. W. (2003). “Justice as A Basic Human Need”. New Ideas in Psychology, 21(3), 209-219. doi: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2003.09.004
The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2015). On Human Gene Editing: International Summit Statement. Comité de organización: David Bal- timore, Françoise Baylis, Paul Berg, George Q. Daley, Jennifer A. Doudna, Eric S. Lander, Robin Lovell-Badge, Pilar Ossorio. Recuperado de: http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=12032015a. (Consulta hecha el 22.06.18).
UNESCO. (1997). Declaración Universal sobre el Genoma Humano y los Derechos Humanos. Recuperado de: http://portal.unesco.org/es/ev.php-URL_ ID=13177&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html (Consulta hecha el 13.04.18).
Velázquez, H. (2009). “Transhumanismo, libertad e identidad humana”, Thémata, Re- vista de Filosofía, Número 41.
Vigo, A. (2007). Aristóteles: Una introducción. Las Condes, Santiago de Chile: Instituto de Estudios de la Sociedad (IES).
Vita-More, N. (2013). “Radically Enhanced Human body”. En Serius, Goetzel y Go- dan. Best of H+ Magazine Volume 1: 2008 – 2010. Recuperado de: http:// goertzel.org/BestOfH+MagazineVolume1.pdf (Consulta hecha el 27.06.18).
World Transhumanist Association. (2002). The transhumanist declaration. Recuperado de web.archive.org/web/20090512213327/http://transhumanism.org/in- dex.php/WTA/declaration (Consulta hecha el 27.06.18).
Wilker, D. (2005). “¿Podemos aprender de la eugenesia?”, en Luna, F., y Rivera, E., comps., Los desafíos éticos de la genética humana. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
